Flexibility of working memory encoding in a sentence–picture–sound verification task created by Michael A. Nees, Bruce N. Walker

Dual-process accounts of working memory have suggested distinct encoding processes for verbal and visual information in working memory, but encoding for nonspeech sounds (e.g., tones) is not well understood. This experiment modified the sentence–picture verification task to include nonspeech sounds with a complete factorial examination of all possible stimulus pairings. Participants studied simple stimuli–pictures, sentences, or sounds–and encoded the stimuli verbally, as visual images, or as auditory images. Participants then compared their encoded representations to verification stimuli–again pictures, sentences, or sounds–in a two-choice reaction time task. With some caveats, the encoding strategy appeared to be as important or more important than the external format of the initial stimulus in determining the speed of verification decisions. Findings suggested that: (1) auditory imagery may be distinct from verbal and visuospatial processing in working memory; (2) visual perception but not visual imagery may automatically activate concurrent verbal codes; and (3) the effects of hearing a sound may linger for some time despite recoding in working memory. We discuss the role of auditory imagery in dual-process theories of working memory.